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catscradle Oct. 28th, 2003 12:40 pm)
catscradle Oct. 28th, 2003 12:40 pm)Yesterday I finally turned in my revised thesis proposal to the religious studies department and my outline for revisions to the first chapter to my advisor. Go me.
So, here's the official proposal. As it's just a proposal, there's no deep detail here or the million and one sources I'll need for the actual thesis. But it's interesting enough, so here it is. . .
The Apocalyptic Vision of Christian Zionism in American Politics
by, Stephanie
The purpose of my thesis paper is to examine the apocalyptic vision of Christian Zionism in American politics and its relationship to the state of Israel. I will be focusing on the history of premillennial dispensationalism and how socio-economic and political movements of the nineteenth century helped give life to the movement. I will also illustrate how some historical events of the twentieth century, while fostering apocalyptic beliefs among certain religious groups, were also brought about by politically influential individuals in attempts to bring about self-fulfilling prophetic visions. There will be a special focus on The New Christian Right, lead by such leaders as Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson, their close knit ties to the Israeli Likud party, and the influence they have on American politicians and policy.
“Christian Zionism” is a relatively new term that gained more wide spread use only after the events of September 11, 2001. Until then, the term was only used in certain segments of Protestant fundamentalist circles and, according to Middle Eastern studies and Christian Zionism expert, Donald Wagner, existed “under the radar of most middle east experts and the mainstream media.”[1] While overtly it seems to imply simply Christian support of Zionism, that is to say, the right for Jews to have their own homeland and Israel to exist as a nation-state, the undercurrent suggests there is more there than meets the eye. Christian Zionists’ support for Israel stems from their belief that the Jews must return to Israel and build the third temple before Jesus can return. After that, the Jews must all convert or perish during The Great Tribulation. Thus Christian Zionism is a Christian agenda concerned not with matters of Jewish interest, but sees Jews only as essential players in their end times scenario.
The Christian Zionist phenomenon has deep roots going back to the early eighteen hundreds in Great Britain and the United States. It was an outgrowth of several evangelical fundamentalists movements, most notably premillennial dispensationalism, though today they claim believers in some mainstream Protestant denominations and even Roman Catholicism. While it is more wide spread today, it is in premillennial dispensationalism that promoted the movement and gave it its momentum.
Defining the Terms: A Historical Overview
In the 1800s, several millennial theologies emerged as a result of the insecurity surrounding the American and French revolutions, and economic depression. The revivalist, abolitionist and temperance movements ignited the spark to postmillennialism in the social and political scene in America. Among them were various utopian movements that sought to bring about the kingdom of God on earth by human efforts to perfect society.[2]
In opposition, William Miller, founder of the Millerites (a group that later became Seventh-day Adventists), drawing on the disillusionment of the optimistic revivalist movement, which faded in light of the depression of 1837, took on the pessimistic outlook of premillennialism. The inability for the postmillennialist to maintain the energy of optimism in times of uncertainty and despair, made many consider the possibility that humanity would not and could not bring about the kingdom of God through their deeds. People were little more than passive players that could only watch as society grew worse.[3]
Their compensation was that Christ would return and bring about the Kingdom himself. Miller even predicted the date this would happen. Twice. From March 21, 1843 to March 21, 1844, the Millerites were to anticipate the return of Christ for his faithful. When that failed to occur, he recalculated the date and extended the period to October 21, 1844. Again to no avail. The Millerites were still left on earth. The great disappointment which followed the failed predictions, lead not to abandonment of faith, but a restructuring of their belief system.[4]
During this same period, John Nelson Darby (1800-82), a disenchanted Anglican priest from Ireland, popularized "futurist premillennial dispensationalism" a new Protestant denomination with eschatological themes that put the return of the Jews to Israel as the central focus of prophecy needed to bring about the return of Christ and the apocalypse. It was this theme that helped the disillusioned Millerites reinterpret their understanding of Christ’s return.[5]
Darby converted many evangelical clergy and laity to his views. He held that biblical prophecies and much of scripture must be interpreted according to a literal and predictive model. He believed that the true church will be removed from history through an event called the "rapture" and the nation of Israel will be restored as God's primary instrument in history.[6]
His dispensationalism states that God deals with man differently in successive covenantal eras, or dispensations, such as innocence, conscience, civil government, promise, Mosaic law, grace (church), tribulation, and millennium (we are currently living in the dispensation of grace). Moral values and rules differ from each dispensation, as they function as a separate system unto themselves. This explains, for instance, why Mosaic law and church law are not cohesive to each other, while they can still come from the same God. Different epochs in history demand a different set of rules.[7]
Premillennial dispensationalism asserts that Jesus Christ’s mission on earth was a failure and he was unable to set up a kingdom on earth due to the rejection of him by the Jews during the current church dispensation. The view holds that most of end times prophecy has yet to be fulfilled and that Christ's second coming precedes a literal thousand-year reign with the resurrected “saints” that will occur at the beginning of the seven year Tribulation Period.[8]
To the premillennialist, the world is falling into the hands of Satan. Evil is gaining control over earth and humanity. There is no earthly means to turn back the tide and regain control. Only the return of Christ can bind Satan and establish the kingdom on earth. But first, things have to get bad. The Antichrist must rise, there must be a mass conversion of the Jews, and the ultimate battle of good and evil must be fought at Armageddon. Millions, if not billions, will die.
Only after that will the Millennia occur.[9]
The other premillennial views see different timings of the rapture. It can be further broken down into pretribulation (based on dispensationalism), midtribulation, and posttribulation.
The midtribulation view is based on the assertion that the tribulation is actually the three and one-half year Great Tribulation, and that it commences with the revealing of the Antichrist midway through the seven year peace treaty he has made with Israel. At that point the church is raptured in order to escape the Great Tribulation, which is believed to be God's wrath.[10]
The posttribulation view sees a single second coming of Christ. It holds the belief that the church will be kept by God's grace through all, and the “saints” will be given their glorified bodies in order to meet Christ as he comes to earth to defeat the Antichrist at Armageddon and establish his millennial reign in Jerusalem.
Post-tribulationists are identified mostly with postmillennialism – a group that believes that Christ will assume his reign through the church now. The world will continue to get better through the reform of the church and a golden age will reign on earth. They do not hold the pessimistic view of the church that is prevalent in premillennialism and this difference creates a tension between the two groups. Postmillennial groups are mostly identified today with the Reconstructionist faction in Christian fundalmentalism, which attempt to throw off the negative views of the premillennialist, believing them to be detrimental to the Millennial cause.[11]
Through Darby's influence, premillennial dispensationalism became a dominant method of biblical interpretation and influenced a generation of evangelical leaders, the most influential instrument of dispensational thinking being the Scofield Bible (1909) which included a commentary that interpreted prophetic texts according to a premillennial model.[12]
Another early Darby disciple, William E. Blackstone, brought dispensationalism to millions of Americans through his best seller Jesus Is Coming (1882). Blackstone organized the first Zionist lobbying effort in the U.S. in 1891 when he enlisted J. P. Morgan, John D. Rockefeller, Charles B. Scribner and other financiers to sponsor a massive newspaper campaign requesting President Benjamin Harrison to support the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine.[13]
These seeds of the Christian Zionist movement preceded Jewish Zionism by several years. Both Lord Arthur Balfour, the British foreign secretary and author of the famous 1917 Balfour Declaration that officially endorsed the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine, and Prime Minister David Lloyd George, were raised in dispensationalist churches and were publicly committed to the Zionist agenda for "biblical" and colonialist reasons.[14]
Twentieth Century “Signs” of the "Second Coming
Due to Darby’s refocusing of premillennialism to the role Jews will play in fulfillment of prophecy, certain historical events took on a new light. If political officials were attempting to help God along in his plan for Armageddon, millennial groups were paying attention to what was going on around them. The Balfour Declaration was the first step in the right direction. The Jews were encouraged to once again live in Palestine for the first time in nearly two-thousand years. The end was surely near.
WWII and the horrors of the Holocaust made some question if this was either a punishment or purification for the Jews. But it was post war events that drew excitement and anticipation for millennialist groups. In 1948, the state of Israel was officially created. Jews were not only living in Palestine, they had their own nation.
But it was not until June of 1967 and the Six Day War that the real excitement began. The Israeli military launched a pre-emptive strike against Arab nations and took east Jerusalem, thus bringing the Temple Mount under Israeli occupation. For Christian Zionists, this meant that the third temple could now be constructed and Christ’s return was imminent.[15]
The fulfillment of prophecy, however, proved not to be so simple. Because of Jewish purity laws, the Temple Mount area could not be entered by Jews until a specific purity ritual was performed. As the requirements for the ritual have not, to date, been fulfilled, there would be no third temple. Also, the Temple Mount area is sacred to Muslims. There are two mosques built on the site. The area was left under Muslim control by the Israeli government to help cool the hostile situation between the two nations. It seemed if Christ was going to return, help would be required.[16]
Shortly after the Six Day War, premillennial evangelicals, such as Jerry Falwell, began to preach that the time was near. Jews were back in their rightful home and they had Jerusalem in their grasp. The political situation was also prime for an Armageddon style battle.[17] With the help of books like Hal Lindsey’s The Late Great Planet Earth, Falwell mobilized a religious and political group in the United States that supported the Zionist agenda in Israel. Money came pouring in to help, and soon, the right winged Israeli Likud party was courting Falwell more closely than the US President.[18] By 1979, Falwell had created his Moral Majority/Christian Coalition movement and had gained support with the American political right wing, most notably Ronald Reagan.[19] It is the movement Falwell began in 1979 that I will identify as the New Christian Right.
My thesis will present a theory on how socio-economic and political movements of the nineteenth and twentieth century, gave rise to the Christian Zionist apocalyptic vision that infiltrated the American political structure.
Thesis Outline
Chapter 1 is on the history of premillennial dispensationalism, and how revivalism, depression and the abolitionist and temperance movements in 19th century America and Britain gave birth to the Christian Zionism in the American political structure today. There will be a special focus on John Darby, William Miller, William E. Blackwood and C. I. Scofield.
Chapter 2 will be on 20th century events in history such as, The Balfour Declaration of 1917, WWII/Holocaust, the use of the first atomic weapon on Hiroshima and the beginning of the nuclear age, Israel as a state (1948), and The Six Day War (1967) and capture of Jerusalem, and how they are interpreted in terms of Christian biblical apocalyptic prophecy (emphasis will be on the Scofield Bible).
Chapter 3 will focus on the Israeli Likud Party and its ties to Evangelical Christianity and neo-conservatism in the American political right wing. This chapter will also look at the US Presidency and its support of Israel from Dwight D. Eisenhower to George W. Bush.
Chapter 4 will look at the New Christian Right and their influence in modern American/Israeli politics. A focus will be on Jerry Falwell, Hal Lindsey, Tim LaHaye, Billy Graham, and Pat Robertson.
Chapter 5 – Conclusion – will tie in chapters 1 – 4 and form a conclusion on how the historical events led to the current Christian Zionist political movement on the United States.
Notes
1. Wagner, Donald. “Christian Zionism, Israel and the ‘second coming.’” The Daily Star [Online]. Sunday, August 10, 2003. http://www.dailystar.com.lb/opinion/08_10_03_d.asp
2. O’Leary, Stephen. Arguing the Apocalypes: A Theory of Millennial Rhetoric. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). 84-85.
3. Gorenberg, Gershom. The End of Days: Fundamentalism and the Struggle for the Temple Mount. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000). 40.
4. O’Leary. 105-107.
5. Ibid, 137.
6. Ibid, 135-137.
7. Boyer, Paul. When Time Shall Be No More: Prophecy Belief in Modern American Culture. (Cambridge: Oxford University Press, 1998). 86-90. Gorenberg, 53-54.
8. Boyer, 208-217. Tribulation Period is the end-time period of judgment of the earth and God’s wrath on humanity that will last 7 years. The first-half is relatively peaceful. The last 3-1/2 years is "the great tribulation," when most of the terrible judgments in the Book of the Revelation occur. The first half of the tribulation period is marked by apparent world peace, especially in the Middle East as Israel's false prophet and the political/military leaders of the Western nations contrive a "successful" peace plan. The onset of the Great Tribulation is marked by failure of this peace treaty and the desecration of the Third Temple in Jerusalem (not yet constructed to date) by the Antichrist.
9. Ibid, 2.
10. O’Leary, 138, 268.
11. Ibid, 84-85, 268.
12. Boyer, 88-90.
13. O’Leary, 186.
14. Boyer, 101-102, 186.
15. Gorenberg, 108-110.
16. Ibid, 7-15.
17. Boyer, 137-138.
18. Gorenberg, 166-167.
19. O’Leary, 172-193.
So, here's the official proposal. As it's just a proposal, there's no deep detail here or the million and one sources I'll need for the actual thesis. But it's interesting enough, so here it is. . .
The Apocalyptic Vision of Christian Zionism in American Politics
by, Stephanie
The purpose of my thesis paper is to examine the apocalyptic vision of Christian Zionism in American politics and its relationship to the state of Israel. I will be focusing on the history of premillennial dispensationalism and how socio-economic and political movements of the nineteenth century helped give life to the movement. I will also illustrate how some historical events of the twentieth century, while fostering apocalyptic beliefs among certain religious groups, were also brought about by politically influential individuals in attempts to bring about self-fulfilling prophetic visions. There will be a special focus on The New Christian Right, lead by such leaders as Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson, their close knit ties to the Israeli Likud party, and the influence they have on American politicians and policy.
“Christian Zionism” is a relatively new term that gained more wide spread use only after the events of September 11, 2001. Until then, the term was only used in certain segments of Protestant fundamentalist circles and, according to Middle Eastern studies and Christian Zionism expert, Donald Wagner, existed “under the radar of most middle east experts and the mainstream media.”[1] While overtly it seems to imply simply Christian support of Zionism, that is to say, the right for Jews to have their own homeland and Israel to exist as a nation-state, the undercurrent suggests there is more there than meets the eye. Christian Zionists’ support for Israel stems from their belief that the Jews must return to Israel and build the third temple before Jesus can return. After that, the Jews must all convert or perish during The Great Tribulation. Thus Christian Zionism is a Christian agenda concerned not with matters of Jewish interest, but sees Jews only as essential players in their end times scenario.
The Christian Zionist phenomenon has deep roots going back to the early eighteen hundreds in Great Britain and the United States. It was an outgrowth of several evangelical fundamentalists movements, most notably premillennial dispensationalism, though today they claim believers in some mainstream Protestant denominations and even Roman Catholicism. While it is more wide spread today, it is in premillennial dispensationalism that promoted the movement and gave it its momentum.
Defining the Terms: A Historical Overview
In the 1800s, several millennial theologies emerged as a result of the insecurity surrounding the American and French revolutions, and economic depression. The revivalist, abolitionist and temperance movements ignited the spark to postmillennialism in the social and political scene in America. Among them were various utopian movements that sought to bring about the kingdom of God on earth by human efforts to perfect society.[2]
In opposition, William Miller, founder of the Millerites (a group that later became Seventh-day Adventists), drawing on the disillusionment of the optimistic revivalist movement, which faded in light of the depression of 1837, took on the pessimistic outlook of premillennialism. The inability for the postmillennialist to maintain the energy of optimism in times of uncertainty and despair, made many consider the possibility that humanity would not and could not bring about the kingdom of God through their deeds. People were little more than passive players that could only watch as society grew worse.[3]
Their compensation was that Christ would return and bring about the Kingdom himself. Miller even predicted the date this would happen. Twice. From March 21, 1843 to March 21, 1844, the Millerites were to anticipate the return of Christ for his faithful. When that failed to occur, he recalculated the date and extended the period to October 21, 1844. Again to no avail. The Millerites were still left on earth. The great disappointment which followed the failed predictions, lead not to abandonment of faith, but a restructuring of their belief system.[4]
During this same period, John Nelson Darby (1800-82), a disenchanted Anglican priest from Ireland, popularized "futurist premillennial dispensationalism" a new Protestant denomination with eschatological themes that put the return of the Jews to Israel as the central focus of prophecy needed to bring about the return of Christ and the apocalypse. It was this theme that helped the disillusioned Millerites reinterpret their understanding of Christ’s return.[5]
Darby converted many evangelical clergy and laity to his views. He held that biblical prophecies and much of scripture must be interpreted according to a literal and predictive model. He believed that the true church will be removed from history through an event called the "rapture" and the nation of Israel will be restored as God's primary instrument in history.[6]
His dispensationalism states that God deals with man differently in successive covenantal eras, or dispensations, such as innocence, conscience, civil government, promise, Mosaic law, grace (church), tribulation, and millennium (we are currently living in the dispensation of grace). Moral values and rules differ from each dispensation, as they function as a separate system unto themselves. This explains, for instance, why Mosaic law and church law are not cohesive to each other, while they can still come from the same God. Different epochs in history demand a different set of rules.[7]
Premillennial dispensationalism asserts that Jesus Christ’s mission on earth was a failure and he was unable to set up a kingdom on earth due to the rejection of him by the Jews during the current church dispensation. The view holds that most of end times prophecy has yet to be fulfilled and that Christ's second coming precedes a literal thousand-year reign with the resurrected “saints” that will occur at the beginning of the seven year Tribulation Period.[8]
To the premillennialist, the world is falling into the hands of Satan. Evil is gaining control over earth and humanity. There is no earthly means to turn back the tide and regain control. Only the return of Christ can bind Satan and establish the kingdom on earth. But first, things have to get bad. The Antichrist must rise, there must be a mass conversion of the Jews, and the ultimate battle of good and evil must be fought at Armageddon. Millions, if not billions, will die.
Only after that will the Millennia occur.[9]
The other premillennial views see different timings of the rapture. It can be further broken down into pretribulation (based on dispensationalism), midtribulation, and posttribulation.
The midtribulation view is based on the assertion that the tribulation is actually the three and one-half year Great Tribulation, and that it commences with the revealing of the Antichrist midway through the seven year peace treaty he has made with Israel. At that point the church is raptured in order to escape the Great Tribulation, which is believed to be God's wrath.[10]
The posttribulation view sees a single second coming of Christ. It holds the belief that the church will be kept by God's grace through all, and the “saints” will be given their glorified bodies in order to meet Christ as he comes to earth to defeat the Antichrist at Armageddon and establish his millennial reign in Jerusalem.
Post-tribulationists are identified mostly with postmillennialism – a group that believes that Christ will assume his reign through the church now. The world will continue to get better through the reform of the church and a golden age will reign on earth. They do not hold the pessimistic view of the church that is prevalent in premillennialism and this difference creates a tension between the two groups. Postmillennial groups are mostly identified today with the Reconstructionist faction in Christian fundalmentalism, which attempt to throw off the negative views of the premillennialist, believing them to be detrimental to the Millennial cause.[11]
Through Darby's influence, premillennial dispensationalism became a dominant method of biblical interpretation and influenced a generation of evangelical leaders, the most influential instrument of dispensational thinking being the Scofield Bible (1909) which included a commentary that interpreted prophetic texts according to a premillennial model.[12]
Another early Darby disciple, William E. Blackstone, brought dispensationalism to millions of Americans through his best seller Jesus Is Coming (1882). Blackstone organized the first Zionist lobbying effort in the U.S. in 1891 when he enlisted J. P. Morgan, John D. Rockefeller, Charles B. Scribner and other financiers to sponsor a massive newspaper campaign requesting President Benjamin Harrison to support the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine.[13]
These seeds of the Christian Zionist movement preceded Jewish Zionism by several years. Both Lord Arthur Balfour, the British foreign secretary and author of the famous 1917 Balfour Declaration that officially endorsed the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine, and Prime Minister David Lloyd George, were raised in dispensationalist churches and were publicly committed to the Zionist agenda for "biblical" and colonialist reasons.[14]
Twentieth Century “Signs” of the "Second Coming
Due to Darby’s refocusing of premillennialism to the role Jews will play in fulfillment of prophecy, certain historical events took on a new light. If political officials were attempting to help God along in his plan for Armageddon, millennial groups were paying attention to what was going on around them. The Balfour Declaration was the first step in the right direction. The Jews were encouraged to once again live in Palestine for the first time in nearly two-thousand years. The end was surely near.
WWII and the horrors of the Holocaust made some question if this was either a punishment or purification for the Jews. But it was post war events that drew excitement and anticipation for millennialist groups. In 1948, the state of Israel was officially created. Jews were not only living in Palestine, they had their own nation.
But it was not until June of 1967 and the Six Day War that the real excitement began. The Israeli military launched a pre-emptive strike against Arab nations and took east Jerusalem, thus bringing the Temple Mount under Israeli occupation. For Christian Zionists, this meant that the third temple could now be constructed and Christ’s return was imminent.[15]
The fulfillment of prophecy, however, proved not to be so simple. Because of Jewish purity laws, the Temple Mount area could not be entered by Jews until a specific purity ritual was performed. As the requirements for the ritual have not, to date, been fulfilled, there would be no third temple. Also, the Temple Mount area is sacred to Muslims. There are two mosques built on the site. The area was left under Muslim control by the Israeli government to help cool the hostile situation between the two nations. It seemed if Christ was going to return, help would be required.[16]
Shortly after the Six Day War, premillennial evangelicals, such as Jerry Falwell, began to preach that the time was near. Jews were back in their rightful home and they had Jerusalem in their grasp. The political situation was also prime for an Armageddon style battle.[17] With the help of books like Hal Lindsey’s The Late Great Planet Earth, Falwell mobilized a religious and political group in the United States that supported the Zionist agenda in Israel. Money came pouring in to help, and soon, the right winged Israeli Likud party was courting Falwell more closely than the US President.[18] By 1979, Falwell had created his Moral Majority/Christian Coalition movement and had gained support with the American political right wing, most notably Ronald Reagan.[19] It is the movement Falwell began in 1979 that I will identify as the New Christian Right.
My thesis will present a theory on how socio-economic and political movements of the nineteenth and twentieth century, gave rise to the Christian Zionist apocalyptic vision that infiltrated the American political structure.
Thesis Outline
Chapter 1 is on the history of premillennial dispensationalism, and how revivalism, depression and the abolitionist and temperance movements in 19th century America and Britain gave birth to the Christian Zionism in the American political structure today. There will be a special focus on John Darby, William Miller, William E. Blackwood and C. I. Scofield.
Chapter 2 will be on 20th century events in history such as, The Balfour Declaration of 1917, WWII/Holocaust, the use of the first atomic weapon on Hiroshima and the beginning of the nuclear age, Israel as a state (1948), and The Six Day War (1967) and capture of Jerusalem, and how they are interpreted in terms of Christian biblical apocalyptic prophecy (emphasis will be on the Scofield Bible).
Chapter 3 will focus on the Israeli Likud Party and its ties to Evangelical Christianity and neo-conservatism in the American political right wing. This chapter will also look at the US Presidency and its support of Israel from Dwight D. Eisenhower to George W. Bush.
Chapter 4 will look at the New Christian Right and their influence in modern American/Israeli politics. A focus will be on Jerry Falwell, Hal Lindsey, Tim LaHaye, Billy Graham, and Pat Robertson.
Chapter 5 – Conclusion – will tie in chapters 1 – 4 and form a conclusion on how the historical events led to the current Christian Zionist political movement on the United States.
Notes
1. Wagner, Donald. “Christian Zionism, Israel and the ‘second coming.’” The Daily Star [Online]. Sunday, August 10, 2003. http://www.dailystar.com.lb/opinion/08_10_03_d.asp
2. O’Leary, Stephen. Arguing the Apocalypes: A Theory of Millennial Rhetoric. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). 84-85.
3. Gorenberg, Gershom. The End of Days: Fundamentalism and the Struggle for the Temple Mount. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000). 40.
4. O’Leary. 105-107.
5. Ibid, 137.
6. Ibid, 135-137.
7. Boyer, Paul. When Time Shall Be No More: Prophecy Belief in Modern American Culture. (Cambridge: Oxford University Press, 1998). 86-90. Gorenberg, 53-54.
8. Boyer, 208-217. Tribulation Period is the end-time period of judgment of the earth and God’s wrath on humanity that will last 7 years. The first-half is relatively peaceful. The last 3-1/2 years is "the great tribulation," when most of the terrible judgments in the Book of the Revelation occur. The first half of the tribulation period is marked by apparent world peace, especially in the Middle East as Israel's false prophet and the political/military leaders of the Western nations contrive a "successful" peace plan. The onset of the Great Tribulation is marked by failure of this peace treaty and the desecration of the Third Temple in Jerusalem (not yet constructed to date) by the Antichrist.
9. Ibid, 2.
10. O’Leary, 138, 268.
11. Ibid, 84-85, 268.
12. Boyer, 88-90.
13. O’Leary, 186.
14. Boyer, 101-102, 186.
15. Gorenberg, 108-110.
16. Ibid, 7-15.
17. Boyer, 137-138.
18. Gorenberg, 166-167.
19. O’Leary, 172-193.
